[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
dictionary, they are not yet hyphenated. For example, Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary lists
Page 62
Chapter 3. Punctuation
right-of-way, n. & adj.
But state of the art, n.; state-of-the-art, adj.
The dictionary is the best source for hyphenation and spelling of permanent compound nouns.
Formation of a temporary compound noun with a hyphen is appropriate when a combination of several nouns is
one entity:
wing-body
writer-editor
Compound verbs
Hyphenate an active compound verb derived from a noun form consisting of separate words:
Langley flight-tested that configuration.
To cross-brace such a structure is impossible.
But the passive verb form need not be hyphenated:
That configuration was flight tested.
Such a structure could not be cross braced.
Unit modifiers
Most authorities (for example, Bernstein 1981 and G.P.O. 1984) advocate hyphenating unit modifiers only when
necessary to avoid ambiguity. See section 1.5.2; the guidelines for hyphenation are repeated here:
" A unit modifier should not be hyphenated
When the unit modifier is a predicate adjective: The aircraft was flight tested.
Note: An adjective that is hyphenated in the dictionary is hyphenated as a predicate adjective: The method
is well-known.
When the first element of the unit modifier is a comparative or superlative: higher order calculations
When the first element is an adverb ending in ly: relatively accurate prediction
When the unit modifier is a foreign phrase: a priori condition
When the unit modifier is a proper name: North Carolina coast (but Anglo-American plan)
When the unit modifier has a letter or number designation as its second element: material 3 properties
When the unit modifier is enclosed in quotation marks: ``elliptical style'' symbol list
When the unit modifier is a scientific name of a chemical, an animal, or a plant which is not normally
hyphenated: nitric oxide formation
" A unit modifier should always be hyphenated
When the unit modifier contains a past or present participle: flight-tested model, decay-producing moment
When the unit modifier is a combination of color terms: blue-gray residue
When a connecting word is implied in the unit modifier: lift-drag ratio, Newton-Raphson iteration
When the unit modifier contains numbers (other than number designations): three-degree-of-freedom
simulator, 0.3-metertunnel
Page 63
Chapter 3. Punctuation
3.9. Italics
Why is a section on italics appearing in a chapter on punctuation? The purpose of italics very closely resembles
the purpose of punctuation, to make meaning clear and reading easier. According to Words Into Type (Skillin et
al. 1974), "Italics are used to distinguish letters, words, or phrases from the rest of the sentence so that the
writer's thought or the meaning and use of the italicized words will be quickly understood." Italics are used to
distinguish elements to be emphasized, special terminology, symbols, and words or letters to be differentiated
from text. In addition, there are several conventional uses for italics.
In typewritten text, underscore replaces italics and should be used only when absolutely necessary. In many
instances, underscore is not used in typewritten text when italics would be appropriate in typeset text.
3.9.1. Italics for Emphasis
Words may be italicized when they would be stressed if spoken (Ebbitt and Ebbitt 1982). Italics are especially
appropriate if the emphasis would be lost when written:
Of all the events affecting Langley history, only two have caused major trauma. The second was
the Sputnik crisis.
Only rarely would a whole sentence be italicized for emphasis and never a whole passage (Chicago Press 1982).
As a matter of fact, overuse of italics causes them to lose their force. Italics for special effects "are used less and
less ..., especially by mature writers who prefer to obtain their effect structurally ... writers who find themselves
underlining frequently for emphasis might consider (1) whether many of the italics are not superfluous, the
emphasis being apparent from the context, or (2) if the emphasis is not apparent, whether it cannot be achieved
more gracefully by recasting the sentence" (Chicago Press 1982). Consider the following sentences:
Although holographic interferometry and modulation transfer function techniques were applied, a
simple shadowgraph system eventually identified the flow-visualization problem.
The flow-visualization problem was eventually identified not by holographic interferometry, not by
modulation transfer function techniques, but by a simple shadowgraph system.
3.9.2. Italics for Special Terminology
A key term in a discussion or a technical term accompanied by its definition is often italicized on first use:
Caustics, concentrations of light corresponding to a family of rays, manifest themselves as bright
streaks on the photographs.
For coined terms or technical terms used in a nonstandard way, quotes are preferred to italics (see section
3.14.2).
3.9.3. Italics for Differentiation
Italicize a word used not to represent an idea as usual, but as the word itself:
Page 64
Chapter 3. Punctuation
A colon is not used after that is, for example, or such as.
Likewise, letters used as letters are italicized:
The operator presses the letter n to indicate "no" and the letter y to indicate "yes."
Letters indicating shape (V-tail, L-shaped), letter designations (case A, appendix C), and letters indicating
subdivisions (figure 1(a), equation (2c)) are not italic. Sans serif letters may be used to indicate shape, but roman
type is also acceptable.
Note that the plurals of italic words used as words and italic letters used as letters are formed with roman s's:
and's, if's, and but's
i's and o's
3.9.4. Italics for Symbology
Most mathematical symbols and letter symbols representing a physical concept are italic, whether within roman or
italic text. Chemical symbols, computer symbols, and abbreviations are not italic. Symbols representing vectors,
tensors, and matrices may be set in boldface roman type if available.
In typewritten text, we recommend double spacing around symbols to distinguish those that would normally be
italic.
3.9.5. Conventional Uses for Italics
There are several items that are italicized by convention:
" Titles and subtitles of books, reports,5 compilations, newspapers, and periodicals are italicized, but not titles of
articles, meeting papers, theses, papers in compilations, or patents:
Slater, Philip N. 1980: Remote Sensing---Optics and Optical Systems. Addison-Wesley Publ.
Co., Inc.
Elterman, L. 1970: Vertical-Attenuation Model With Eight Surface Meteorological Ranges 2 to 14
Kilometers. AFCRL-70-0200, U.S. Air Force, Mar. (Available from DTIC as AD 707 488.)
Bowker, D. E.; Davis, R. E.; Von Ofenheim, W. H. C.; and Myrick, D.~L. 1983: Estimation of
Spectral Reflectance Signatures From Spectral Radiance Profiles. Proceedings of the Seventeenth
International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Volume II, Environmental
Research Inst. of Michigan, pp. 795--814.
Allen, William A.; and Richardson, Arthur J. 1968: Interaction of Light With a Plant Canopy. J.
Opt. Soc. America, vol. 58, no. 8, Aug., pp. 1923--1928.
5
Most authorities on style do not indicate whether or not to italicize report titles; Tichy and Fourdrinier (1988) [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl akte20.pev.pl
dictionary, they are not yet hyphenated. For example, Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary lists
Page 62
Chapter 3. Punctuation
right-of-way, n. & adj.
But state of the art, n.; state-of-the-art, adj.
The dictionary is the best source for hyphenation and spelling of permanent compound nouns.
Formation of a temporary compound noun with a hyphen is appropriate when a combination of several nouns is
one entity:
wing-body
writer-editor
Compound verbs
Hyphenate an active compound verb derived from a noun form consisting of separate words:
Langley flight-tested that configuration.
To cross-brace such a structure is impossible.
But the passive verb form need not be hyphenated:
That configuration was flight tested.
Such a structure could not be cross braced.
Unit modifiers
Most authorities (for example, Bernstein 1981 and G.P.O. 1984) advocate hyphenating unit modifiers only when
necessary to avoid ambiguity. See section 1.5.2; the guidelines for hyphenation are repeated here:
" A unit modifier should not be hyphenated
When the unit modifier is a predicate adjective: The aircraft was flight tested.
Note: An adjective that is hyphenated in the dictionary is hyphenated as a predicate adjective: The method
is well-known.
When the first element of the unit modifier is a comparative or superlative: higher order calculations
When the first element is an adverb ending in ly: relatively accurate prediction
When the unit modifier is a foreign phrase: a priori condition
When the unit modifier is a proper name: North Carolina coast (but Anglo-American plan)
When the unit modifier has a letter or number designation as its second element: material 3 properties
When the unit modifier is enclosed in quotation marks: ``elliptical style'' symbol list
When the unit modifier is a scientific name of a chemical, an animal, or a plant which is not normally
hyphenated: nitric oxide formation
" A unit modifier should always be hyphenated
When the unit modifier contains a past or present participle: flight-tested model, decay-producing moment
When the unit modifier is a combination of color terms: blue-gray residue
When a connecting word is implied in the unit modifier: lift-drag ratio, Newton-Raphson iteration
When the unit modifier contains numbers (other than number designations): three-degree-of-freedom
simulator, 0.3-metertunnel
Page 63
Chapter 3. Punctuation
3.9. Italics
Why is a section on italics appearing in a chapter on punctuation? The purpose of italics very closely resembles
the purpose of punctuation, to make meaning clear and reading easier. According to Words Into Type (Skillin et
al. 1974), "Italics are used to distinguish letters, words, or phrases from the rest of the sentence so that the
writer's thought or the meaning and use of the italicized words will be quickly understood." Italics are used to
distinguish elements to be emphasized, special terminology, symbols, and words or letters to be differentiated
from text. In addition, there are several conventional uses for italics.
In typewritten text, underscore replaces italics and should be used only when absolutely necessary. In many
instances, underscore is not used in typewritten text when italics would be appropriate in typeset text.
3.9.1. Italics for Emphasis
Words may be italicized when they would be stressed if spoken (Ebbitt and Ebbitt 1982). Italics are especially
appropriate if the emphasis would be lost when written:
Of all the events affecting Langley history, only two have caused major trauma. The second was
the Sputnik crisis.
Only rarely would a whole sentence be italicized for emphasis and never a whole passage (Chicago Press 1982).
As a matter of fact, overuse of italics causes them to lose their force. Italics for special effects "are used less and
less ..., especially by mature writers who prefer to obtain their effect structurally ... writers who find themselves
underlining frequently for emphasis might consider (1) whether many of the italics are not superfluous, the
emphasis being apparent from the context, or (2) if the emphasis is not apparent, whether it cannot be achieved
more gracefully by recasting the sentence" (Chicago Press 1982). Consider the following sentences:
Although holographic interferometry and modulation transfer function techniques were applied, a
simple shadowgraph system eventually identified the flow-visualization problem.
The flow-visualization problem was eventually identified not by holographic interferometry, not by
modulation transfer function techniques, but by a simple shadowgraph system.
3.9.2. Italics for Special Terminology
A key term in a discussion or a technical term accompanied by its definition is often italicized on first use:
Caustics, concentrations of light corresponding to a family of rays, manifest themselves as bright
streaks on the photographs.
For coined terms or technical terms used in a nonstandard way, quotes are preferred to italics (see section
3.14.2).
3.9.3. Italics for Differentiation
Italicize a word used not to represent an idea as usual, but as the word itself:
Page 64
Chapter 3. Punctuation
A colon is not used after that is, for example, or such as.
Likewise, letters used as letters are italicized:
The operator presses the letter n to indicate "no" and the letter y to indicate "yes."
Letters indicating shape (V-tail, L-shaped), letter designations (case A, appendix C), and letters indicating
subdivisions (figure 1(a), equation (2c)) are not italic. Sans serif letters may be used to indicate shape, but roman
type is also acceptable.
Note that the plurals of italic words used as words and italic letters used as letters are formed with roman s's:
and's, if's, and but's
i's and o's
3.9.4. Italics for Symbology
Most mathematical symbols and letter symbols representing a physical concept are italic, whether within roman or
italic text. Chemical symbols, computer symbols, and abbreviations are not italic. Symbols representing vectors,
tensors, and matrices may be set in boldface roman type if available.
In typewritten text, we recommend double spacing around symbols to distinguish those that would normally be
italic.
3.9.5. Conventional Uses for Italics
There are several items that are italicized by convention:
" Titles and subtitles of books, reports,5 compilations, newspapers, and periodicals are italicized, but not titles of
articles, meeting papers, theses, papers in compilations, or patents:
Slater, Philip N. 1980: Remote Sensing---Optics and Optical Systems. Addison-Wesley Publ.
Co., Inc.
Elterman, L. 1970: Vertical-Attenuation Model With Eight Surface Meteorological Ranges 2 to 14
Kilometers. AFCRL-70-0200, U.S. Air Force, Mar. (Available from DTIC as AD 707 488.)
Bowker, D. E.; Davis, R. E.; Von Ofenheim, W. H. C.; and Myrick, D.~L. 1983: Estimation of
Spectral Reflectance Signatures From Spectral Radiance Profiles. Proceedings of the Seventeenth
International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment, Volume II, Environmental
Research Inst. of Michigan, pp. 795--814.
Allen, William A.; and Richardson, Arthur J. 1968: Interaction of Light With a Plant Canopy. J.
Opt. Soc. America, vol. 58, no. 8, Aug., pp. 1923--1928.
5
Most authorities on style do not indicate whether or not to italicize report titles; Tichy and Fourdrinier (1988) [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]